Florence: San Marco

There can be no doubt that the Florentines are immensely proud of the complex of San Marco. When I went to pick up my tickets for a number of attractions in the city, the man in the ticket booth explicitly spoke of “the beautiful San Marco”. The complex comprises a church and the adjacent convent. The convent currently houses the Museo di San Marco, which has the finest collection of works by the painter Fra Angelico (ca. 1395-1455) in all of Italy. While the church can obviously be visited for free, those who want to visit the museum need a ticket. When I visited the Museo di San Marco for the first time in 2010, it was still strictly prohibited to take pictures inside. Nowadays that is fortunately no longer an issue.

History

In 1290 a convent of Sylvestrines was founded on this spot. This order had itself been founded in 1231 as a branch of the Benedictines. In the fifteenth century the Sylvestrines had become known for their debauchery. Poverty and chastity were things of the past and the whole complex was in disrepair. This was not something Pope Eugenius IV (1431-1447) could tolerate. Eugenius had been expelled from Rome in 1434 and would mostly reside in Florence until 1443, under the protection of Cosimo the Elder, the de facto ruler of the city (see Rome: San Salvatore in Lauro and the tomb of Pope Eugenius IV). The pope evicted the Sylvestrines and gave their complex to a group of Dominicans from the convent of San Domenico in Fiesole. The Dominicans arrived here on 15 March 1436. Unfortunately their predecessors had not bothered to clean up before they left: several buildings had been stripped to the core and some of them had even been set ablaze. As a consequence, the Dominicans were forced to live in wooden shacks for a while.

Then between 1437 and 1452 the whole complex was rebuilt and decorated. The dedication to Saint Mark the Evangelist betrays the Venetian roots of Pope Eugenius IV, whose real name was Gabriele Condulmer. The pope had persuaded Cosimo the Elder to finance the rebuilding of the complex. Cosimo spent many tens of thousands of florins on the project, and thanks to his deep pockets it took just a few years to construct a new church, a dormitory with over forty cells, two refectories, a chapter room, a guesthouse for pilgrims, two cloisters and a garden. The architect involved was Michelozzo (1396-1472), Cosimo’s favourite master builder who was also responsible for the construction of the Palazzo Medici Riccardi between 1444 and 1460. Cosimo himself designed the garden of the complex and had Michelozzo build a double cell for him, where the mighty ruler of Florence could retreat to for spiritual matters. On 6 January 1443 the new church and convent were consecrated by Eugenius. Many of the paintings and frescoes in the complex had been made by a Dominican friar who had come over from Fiesole. His name was Guido di Pietro, but he called himself Fra Giovanni. Nowadays we know him as Fra Angelico, the “angelic brother”.

Michelozzo was also responsible for the construction of the public library of the complex, the first of its kind in Florence. The library was once again financed by Cosimo and built in 1443-1444. Cosimo had by now acquired hundreds of Greek and Latin manuscripts that had previously belonged to the humanist Niccolò de’ Niccoli (1364-1437), who had passed away a few years ago. He donated the manuscripts to the library, where they became the nucleus of the collection. In the library the books were kept in bookcases called armaria or on tables, often chained to the to the tabletops to prevent theft. The list of books to be collected for the library had been compiled by a certain Tommaso Parentucelli, a scholar who was a good friend of Cosimo. In 1444 he was appointed bishop of Bologna and in 1447 the conclave of cardinals elected him as successor to the dead Eugenius. And that is why today we know him best as Pope Nicholas V (1447-1455).

The first prior of the complex of San Marco was Antonino Pierozzi (1389-1459), elected in 1439. In early 1446 Pope Eugenius appointed him archbishop of Florence. In 1523 he was subsequently canonised by Pope Adrianus VI (1522-1523), the only Dutch pope in history. The most notorious inhabitant of the complex was without a doubt Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498) from Ferrara. This fiery Dominican preacher was elected prior of the convent in 1491. Savonarola castigated the Church and citizenry of Florence for their depravity. When the French king Charles VIII invaded Italy in 1494, Savonarola saw the invasion as a punishment from God. Charles’ campaign led to the expulsion from Florence of Piero the Unfortunate, great-grandson of Cosimo the Elder.

For the next couple of years, it was the prior who was calling the shots in Florence. In 1497 he was responsible for the so-called “Bonfire of the vanities”, which involved the public burning of many priceless works of art and luxuries. That same year Pope Alexander VI (1492-1503) had really become fed up with Savonarola and decided to excommunicate him. The next year the prior also lost the support of the people of Florence. Savonarola was arrested and on 23 May 1498 he was hanged and burned in the Piazza della Signoria. In the Museo di San Marco we can still visit his cells, three small rooms in the south corridor. There, among other things, a black mantle made of wool has been put on display which is said to have been Savonarola’s. In one of the rooms we also find a bust of the prior by Fra Mattia della Robbia (ca. 1468-1532).

In the sixteenth century the church of San Marco was renovated twice. Giorgio Vasari (1511-1574), the famous painter, architect and art historian, was responsible for the first renovation. It is likely that during this renovation the medieval frescoes on the walls (see below) were whitewashed. The second renovation, in 1580-1588, followed a design by Jean de Boulogne from Flanders, alternatively known as Giambologna (ca. 1529-1608). Giambologna built the large altars on the sides of the church. He was also responsible for the construction of the Cappella Salviati, which was named after the family who had commissioned the chapel. The chapel is also called the Chapel of Sant’Antonino, as it is here that we find the sarcophagus with the remains of Antonino Pierozzi. A large number of artists was involved in the decoration of the chapel (see below).

A seventeenth-century renovation was led by the Florentine architect Pier Francesco Silvani (1619-1685). The Baroque ceiling of the church is his work. The church got its Neoclassical façade in 1777-1778. The relatively unknown Gioacchino Pronti was responsible for its design. According to the usually reliable Churches of Florence (see sources) he was a Carmelite friar from Rimini. However, according to other sources it was Fra Giovan Battista Paladini who designed the façade. The one thing Pronti and Paladini have in common is that they are both architects of little fame.

Things to see in the church

The church of San Marco has a single nave, so we see a large open space with on either side the altars by Giambologna. Unfortunately some of the more interesting artworks seem to have disappeared recently. The high altar should have been embellished with a crucifix from 1425-1428 by Fra Angelico, but according to the information panel in the church the object is “attualmente non presente” (not present at the moment). Its current location is unfortunately not mentioned (was it perhaps taken away for restoration?). Many sources then mention a painted crucifix from the fourteenth century high up on the counter-façade, but it was definitely not there when I visited the church in 2023 and 2024. The holes of the nails used to fix the object in place were, on the other hand, still visible, so the story of the crucifix is certainly not fiction. As Giorgio Vasari in his biography of Giotto (ca. 1266-1337) mentions a crucifix by this painter in the San Marco, the crucifix is sometimes attributed to Giotto. However, this attribution is probably incorrect. Modern scholars tend to believe that it was painted by an artist from the school of Andrea Orcagna (ca. 1310-1368).

Vasari also mentions a scene of the Annunciation next to the main entrance of the church. Indeed we find an Annunciation there, which was clearly inspired by a similar scene in the Basilica della Santissima Annunziata in Florence. Vasari attributes the fresco to the Roman painter Pietro Cavallini (ca. 1259-1330), who according to him was a student of Giotto. Unfortunately the attribution is incorrect and Cavallini, who was several years older than Giotto, was not his student but his contemporary and a source of inspiration for his work. The church now attributes the fresco – which is a work of excellent quality – to Jacopo di Cione (1325-1399), a younger brother of Orcagna. The Annunciation is dated to ca. 1371. To the left of the archangel Gabriel two kneeling figures are witnesses to the scene. They may be the people who financed the fresco.

On the walls of the church we find a few fragments of frescoes that were rediscovered when the sixteenth-century plaster was removed. The frescoes were painted when the Sylvestrines were still in control of the complex. One fragment is attributed to Bicci di Lorenzo (1373-1452) and dated to 1390. However, 1390 seems a bit too early, as Bicci di Lorenzo was only 17 years old at the time. It is rather unclear what it is we are seeing: a holy martyr, a group of men, a horseman from the Book of Revelation (?) and perhaps an evangelist (Saint Mark?). Another fragment shows us a procession. It is attributed to Antonio Veneziano and dated to 1370.

Of much greater interest and certainly much older is a mosaic in an altar on the right side of the church. It represents the Virgin Mary in the orans position, so in prayer with raised hands. The Virgin is flanked by two Dominican saints, Dominicus de Guzmán (1170-1221) and Raymundus of Penyafort (ca. 1175-1275). The latter was only canonised in 1601, which is clear evidence that the two saints are completely unrelated to the Byzantine mosaic of the Virgin, which presumably dates from the beginning of the eighth century. The men were painted around the mosaic in the seventeenth century, as were the putti above them. The Latin text below the mosaic claims that it was made for old Saint Peter’s basilica during the pontificate of Pope John VII (705-707). In 1609, when construction of new Saint Peter’s was nearing completion, the mosaic of the Virgin was moved to Florence. Perhaps it was originally part of a series of mosaics of which a small piece can still be admired in the church of Santa Maria in Cosmedin in Rome.

The Cappella Salviati or Chapel of Sant’Antonino is also very much worth a visit, although the chapel can be quite dark. Here we find, among other things, works by the painters Alessandro Allori (1535-1607), Giovanni Battista Naldini (1535-1591) and Francesco Morandini, nicknamed Il Poppi (ca. 1544-1597). Bernardino Poccetti (1548-1612) painted the dome of the chapel, while the sculptures were made by Giambologna and his team. The finest decorations are, however, the frescoes in the vestibule of the chapel by Domenico Cresti, who is best known as Passignano (1559-1638). These frescoes were painted after 1589 and depict the funeral of Antonino Pierozzi. The trompe-l’oeil effects of the frescoes are really very good.

Museo di San Marco

The convent next to the church has housed the museum of the complex since 1869. Visitors enter the museum in the first cloister, which was named after Saint Antonino Pierozzi. From there they can explore the various rooms of the complex. Let us start in the large hall on the south side, which is nowadays called the Sala del Beato Angelico. The hall was created by merging several smaller rooms, some of which were used as a guesthouse for pilgrims and travellers. The removal of the partition walls around 1919 led to one big open space, ideal for exhibiting Fra Angelico’s superb panel paintings. Here we for instance find his Pala di San Marco, the altarpiece from the church next door that was highly praised by Vasari. Fra Angelico painted it in 1438-1440. Unfortunately the altarpiece is no longer complete. Several parts are now lost and pieces of the pilasters and predella can currently be found in other museums in Europe and the United States.

Fortunately the Museo di San Marco does still have the square central panel with the most important scene. It shows us the Madonna enthroned with the Christ child on her lap. The throne is surrounded by angels and saints. The saints on the left are Lawrence, John the Evangelist and Mark. Lawrence and John were important saints for Cosimo the Elder and the de’ Medici family. Both Cosimo’s younger brother and his grandson were for instance called Lorenzo, while his father’s name was Giovanni. Saint Mark was of course included because the monastic complex was dedicated to him. On the right we see Saints Dominicus de Guzmán (with a lily), Franciscus of Assisi (in the centre) and Peter of Verona, the first Dominican martyr. The two saints kneeling before the throne are the twin brothers Cosmas and Damianus. Especially the former was a very important saint for Cosimo. After all, Cosimo had been named after him, while his brother who died in 1390 had been given the name Damiano. Note the beautiful patterns on the carpet in front of the throne and the tapestry behind it. The Sala del Beato Angelico also has works from other churches in Florence, for instance nine panels from the Basilica della Santissima Annunziata (1450-1452) and a Lamentation of the Dead Christ from the oratory of Santa Maria della Croce al Tempio (ca. 1440-1441).

If we then move on to the small refectory, we are in for a bit of a surprise. Here we find a fresco of the Last Supper that closely resembles a similar fresco in the church of Ognissanti, also in Florence. The latter fresco (from 1480) was painted by Domenico Ghirlandaio (1449-1494). The fresco in the San Marco complex is attributed to Ghirlandaio as well, but it is likely that is was mostly painted by his assistants. Note that the fresco in the small refectory of San Marco is not an exact replica of the Ognissanti fresco. On the other hand, it cannot be denied that the latter work was a source of inspiration for the former.

By far the most impressive work can be found in the chapter room. I am referring to an immense fresco of the Crucifixion, presumably painted in 1441-1442. The central figure in the fresco is of course Jesus Christ, who is nailed to the cross in the centre. When he painted the Saviour, Fra Angelico is said to have cried. Christ is flanked by the two criminals who were also crucified. A massive crowd has gathered below the crosses. On the far left are Saints Cosmas and Damianus, saints who – as was already mentioned – were very important for Cosimo and his family. Next is Saint Lawrence with the gridiron on which he was martyred. The kneeling figure with the book is Saint Mark and next to him is Saint John the Baptist, patron saint of Florence. The Virgin Mary is about to faint. Her arms are supported by Mary, wife of Clopas, and the other Saint John. Mary Magdalene can be seen holding the Virgin by the waist. To the right there is a large group of saints standing or kneeling. Almost directly below the crucified Christ is Saint Dominicus, founder of the Order of Preachers. The other saints are church fathers and founders of other monastic orders, with on the far right the Dominicans Peter of Verona and Thomas Aquinas.

In tondi below the Crucifixion Fra Angelico painted the busts of a number of famous Dominicans. The central figure, directly below Christ’s cross, is once again Saint Dominicus. On the left and right he is flanked by a pope (recognisable by the tiara) and a cardinal (recognisable by the red hat). The popes are Innocentius V (1276; left) and Benedictus XI (1303-1304; right). Remarkably, neither of the two popes survived more than a few months on Saint Peter’s throne. The fifth figure from the left is Antonino Pierozzi. When Fra Angelico painted the fresco Pierozzi was still alive – he died in 1459 – and we know for certain that previously another Dominican was depicted here. For obvious reasons the image of the first prior of San Marco could not be omitted here, and this was all the more the case after his canonisation in 1523. Nine prophets have been painted on the round arch of the fresco, and to these were added Dionysius the Areopagite (an Athenian judge who was converted by Saint Paul) and the Erythraean Sibyl. The large fresco was restored 1967-1974, 2011-2012 and 2013-2014.

The 43 cells of the friars can be found on the first floor of the convent. The interior of the cells is obviously very sober, but Fra Angelico did decorate each and every cell with a fresco that the friars could pray and meditate by. The great painter was of course aided by his assistants, and one of these has been identified with certainty: the young Benozzo Gozzoli (ca. 1421-1497). Several frescoes are attributed to him in their entirety. The cells adjoin three long corridors. The east corridor is that of the older friars, the south corridor was used by the novices and the north corridor had the cells of the lay brothers. Savonarola’s quarters are at the end of the south corridor, where among other things we can admire a fresco of Fra Bartolommeo (1473-1517). He was a loyal supporter of the controversial preacher. Cosimo the Elder’s double cell is located in the north corridor. I noticed that the frescoes in the cells of the older friars are rather more complex and certainly more beautiful than those in the cells of the novices. The younger friars mostly had to content themselves with variants of the Crucifixion. From the north corridor one can enter the library. Among other works of art it has a painting by Zanobi Strozzi (1412-1468), a painter who was presumably a student of Fra Angelico.

Fra Angelico and his assistants also painted a number of larger frescoes in the corridors. If you take the stairs to the first floor, you will immediately bump into a splendid Annunciation, that is set inside a loggia. The work dates from ca. 1440-1445. Below the central column of the loggia is a text in Latin that instructs the friars to hail the Virgin Mary. On a part of the wall in the east corridor we find a second fresco, known as the Madonna of the Shadows. It dates from about 1443-1445 or from after 1450. The fresco features a so-called Sacred Conversation with in the centre the Madonna and Child on a throne. On the left are Saints Dominicus, Cosmas and Damianus, and Mark. The saints on the right are John the Evangelist, Thomas Aquinas, Lawrence and Peter of Verona with a bloody head (he was murdered in 1252). So once again the fresco shows us a collection of saints with close ties to the convent of San Marco and the de’ Medici family.

Sources

• Capitool travel guide Florence & Tuscany (2010), p. 96-97;
• Ross King, The Bookseller of Florence, p. 58, 88-91, 116 and 388-391;
• Basilica di San Marco (Firenze) – Wikipedia
• The Churches of Florence – East – San Marco