Pavia: San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro

Although we had parked our car fairly close by, we had to take a rather long detour to reach the fascinating church of San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro. The church stands somewhat isolated, perhaps a consequence of the fact that it was originally situated outside the walls of Pavia. Three important historical figures were buried in the San Pietro: the Longobard king Liutprand (who ruled between 712 and 744), the Roman philosopher Boethius (executed in 524) and the church father Saint Augustinus[1] of Hippo (354-430). The remains of the latter are said to have been translated to Pavia during the reign of Liutprand. In the fourteenth century a beautiful funerary monument was made for Augustinus, attributed to Giovanni di Balduccio. His marble Arca di Sant’Agostino is the undisputed cultural highlight of the basilica. For Christians the monument is the undisputed religious highlight as well. As one of my friends remarked with ample justification: even a Protestant feels devotion here.

History

The history of San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro goes back many centuries. There was probably already a church here in the sixth century, which must have been dedicated to Saint Peter the Apostle. King Liutprand had this church rebuilt in the eighth century to house the remains of Augustinus. The church father had died in 430 in Hippo Regius in North Africa during the siege of the city by the Vandals under their king Gaiseric. Like most Vandals, Gaiseric was an Arian Christian, which made him a heretic according to the decisions of the Council of Nicaea. In the early sixth century the conflict between Arian and Orthodox (Catholic) Christians led to the forced exile of bishop Fulgentius of Ruspe to Sardinia. The bishop reportedly took the remains of Augustinus, whom he greatly admired, from Hippo to the island. There they would remain for over two centuries, but Liutprand considered the island vulnerable to attacks by raiders from Muslim-held North Africa. Around 723 he had the remains translated to his capital of Ticinum, present-day Pavia.

What is remarkable about Liutprand’s action is that Sardinia was not at all part of the Longobard Kingdom (568-774). The island belonged to the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire, but apparently the king’s influence was so great (and Byzantine authority so weak) that he could easily confiscate the precious relics. Liutprand himself was also buried in the church of San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro, although this only took place in the twelfth century. Unfortunately, the king’s funerary monument was disassembled in the sixteenth century. Nowadays the only reminders of Liutprand are a plaque attached to a column and a slab with the simple Latin text HIC IACENT OSSA REGIS LIVTPRANDI, “here lie the bones of King Liutprand”. Interestingly, bones have indeed been found here, although admittedly these turned out to belong to three different people. However, one of these individuals was a man aged between 40 and 50 who lived in the eighth century. We should certainly not rule out that he was indeed the king.

Next to the church a convent was built with a scriptorium, where important works were copied. The first monks to settle at the convent followed the rule of the Irish saint Columbanus 540-615), founder of the abbey of Bobbio. They were, however, soon replaced by Benedictines. The Benedictine monks were witnesses to a rebuilding of the church of San Pietro in the Romanesque style around 1120. Next, on 8 May 1132, the church was re-consecrated by Pope Innocentius II (1130-1143). In the twelfth century the complex was moreover incorporated within the walls of Pavia. After the abbot was murdered by several monks, Pope Honorius III (1216-1230) decided to replace the Benedictine monks with a chapter of canons regular. In 1327 Pope John XXII (1316-1334), who ruled from Avignon, ordered the canons to share the complex with hermits of Saint Augustinus. This decision allowed the hermits to live close to the relics of their legendary founder (the church father formulated the Rule of Saint Augustine, but the Order of Saint Augustine only dates from 1244).

After a number of rather uneventful centuries both the canons and the Augustinians were evicted in the 1780s. This was the start of an immensely miserable period for the church. In 1796 French troops looted the building, which was then also deconsecrated. For many decades the San Pietro was basically no more than a ruin, but fortunately between 1884 and 1896 extensive restoration works were carried out under the direction of Angelo Savoldi (1845-1916). On 15 June 1896 – which remarkably happens to be the feast day of Saint Augustinus according to the Eastern Orthodox Church – the church was re-consecrated for the second time. The Augustinian monks also returned. They still administer the complex, and this time without the canons.

Things to see

While we studied the hut-shaped façade of the church (facciata a capanna), we were bitten by mosquitos, so we decided to get inside quickly. From an architectural point of view, the façade is not very interesting, with a lot of brick and very few windows and decorations. The Romanesque portal surrounding the only entrance is, nonetheless, quite beautiful (photo above). The arches have been decorated with finely sculpted reliefs, and on the capitals we recognise fantasy figures such as the famous two-tailed siren (sirena bicaudata). The relief in the triangular pediment dates from the second half of the eleventh century, so it was made before the church itself was rebuilt in the Romanesque style. We see an angel, flanked by two figures.

As the building has very few windows, which are quite small to boot, the San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro is a rather dark church. The “golden ceiling” that the name of the church refers to – ciel d’oro means heaven of gold – has regretfully not been preserved. It must have been very impressive, for in his Paradiso Dante refers to the church as Cieldauro (and not San Pietro).[2] Some gold still seems to be glittering in the conch of the apse, but this is just a fresco, painted in 1900 by Ponziano Loverini (1845-1929) in a brave attempt to replicate a lost mosaic.

In the crypt we find a sarcophagus containing the remains of Boethius. Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius was presumably born between 475 and 480 in Rome. His father was probably the consul of 487 Nar(ius?) Manlius Boethius, of whom a splendid ivory diptych can still be admired in Brescia. Boethius was raised in a Christian household, but thanks to extensive studies he also had intimate knowledge of the pagan philosophers. His studies had been encouraged by his adoptive father Quintus Aurelius Memmius Symmachus, who was a historian, politician and the consul of 485. Boethius would marry his daughter Rusticiana. When he was in his twenties he entered into the service of the Ostrogothic king Theoderic, who had invaded Italy in 489 and had conquered the entire peninsula in just a few years. The young philosopher became a favourite of the king, who appointed him senator and granted him the high-ranking office of magister officiorum. In 510 Boethius served as consul. The two sons he had with Rusticiana shared that office in 522.

Generally speaking, Theoderic was a wise and tolerant ruler, but towards the end of his life he seems to have become paranoid. In 523 Boethius was accused of high treason and imprisoned in Ticinum. While in captivity he wrote his most famous work, De consolatione philosophiae (“On the consolation of philosophy”). In 524 he was executed and buried, possibly in the earliest version of the present church (i.e. the church from the sixth century). On the sarcophagus in the crypt of the San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro he is referred to as a saint (sanctus) and a martyr (martir). It is true that, in the centuries following his death, the locals began considering Boethius as a saint, a cult that received official recognition in 1883. On the other hand, granting Boethius the status of a martyr is highly dubious, as he was certainly not executed because of his Christian faith.

Saint Augustinus

Saint Augustinus was born in Thagaste, a town in Roman North Africa (now Algeria). During his student days he took lessons in rhetoric in Carthage. At the time the future saint was not even remotely interested in Christianity. On the contrary, he was a follower of Manicheism, a religion founded by the prophet Mani (ca. 216-274) in the Sassanid Empire. Moreover, he was in a sexual relationship with a woman without being married to her. The woman bore him a son named Adeodatus. All in all, Augustinus led a rather dissolute life, the kind of life his mother Monica – already a devout Christian – denounced fervently.

When in his late twenties, Augustinus took a ship to Rome to teach rhetoric there. After a stay in Rome, he travelled to Milan, where the people were also trying to attract a new professor of rhetoric. In Milan he met the bishop of the city, the great Ambrosius (ca. 340-397). Augustinus had discussions with Ambrosius and listened to his sermons together with his good friend Alypius of Thagaste. He also got into contact with a devout Christian named Simplicianus, the same Simplicianus who in 397 would succeed Ambrosius as bishop of Milan (see Milan: San Simpliciano). Augustinus’ actual conversion to Christianity, probably in the summer of 386, is said to have been brought about by a voice that spoke the words tolle, lege to him: pick it up (i.e. the Bible) and read it. During Lent of 387 Augustinus was baptised by Ambrosius (see Milan: Sant’Ambrogio). His conversion for obvious reasons caused his mother Monica, who had by now caught up with her son, great joy. They decided to travel back to Africa together, but en route Monica passed away in Ostia. Not much later Adeodatus also died.

Once back in Africa, in 391, Augustinus was ordained a priest in Hippo Regius (modern Annaba in Algeria) by the local bishop Valerius. Four years later he himself became the new bishop of Hippo. As bishop he became famous for his sermons, but also for his writings, including the autobiographical Confessiones and the well-known De civitate Dei, written after the sack of Rome by the Visigoths in 410. As was already mentioned above, Augustinus died in 430 during the siege of Hippo by the Vandals. The story of how his remains left Sardinia and ended up in Pavia has also been told already.

Arca di Sant’Agostino

In the fourteenth century the abbot of the Augustinians decided to commission a splendid funerary monument for the church father.[3] The monument was co-financed by Galeazzo II Visconti, who between 1355 and 1378 ruled over Milan together with his brother Bernabò. The Arca di Sant’Agostino was made between 1362 – the year mentioned on the monument – and 1365. The material used was Carrara and Candoglia marble. The funerary monument is generally attributed to Giovanni di Balduccio, the sculptor who in Milan had also crafted the tombs of the Dominican martyr Peter of Verona and of Azzone Visconti (see Milan: Sant’Eustorgio and Milan: San Gottardo in Corte). Those tombs were, by the way, completed in 1339 and 1344 respectively, so long before Giovanni and his assistants began work on the monument for Augustinus. It is therefore assumed that in 1362 the sculptor was already quite elderly.

The number of statues of saints, apostles, virtues and other figures adorning the monument is virtually uncountable. Estimates in my travel guides range from no less than 95 to more than 150 statues. In the central part of the monument, we see the saint lying under a beautifully carved ceiling, but the best parts are undeniably the nine reliefs which feature scenes from the life of Saint Augustinus. In chronological order we first see Augustinus as a professor of rhetoric in Rome and Milan (left side). Rome is clearly recognisable by the letters SPQR on the city wall. The cycle then continues on the front side of the monument with a relief depicting Augustinus listening to Ambrosius’ sermons. Next, we see the encounter with Simplicianus and the subsequent conversion to Christianity. An angel can be seen handing Augustinus a Bible down from Heaven. In the third scene Augustinus and Adeodatus are baptised by Ambrosius, with Monica keeping a watchful eye. The death of Monica is featured in the next scene, on the reverse side of the monument. She is carried into a church, and historically this must be Sant’Aurea in Ostia. There a part of her tomb slab is still kept, while her mortal remains rest in the church of Sant’Agostino in Rome.

The next scene shows the formulation of the Rule of Saint Augustine. The saint is holding a large scroll, no doubt containing said rule, and is surrounded by monks. In the seventh scene Augustinus has been ordained bishop of Hippo, as is evidenced by the mitre he is wearing. His principal activities are now preaching and baptising. On the right side of the monument, we see two reliefs depicting events from after his death. The relief with the two ships tells the story of how King Liutprand had the remains of the saint collected on Sardinia, while the next relief depicts the arrival of these remains in Pavia and their subsequent translation to the church of San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro. In the cusps we see more miracles and other events from the life of Saint Augustinus. Giovanni di Balduccio and his assistants have left us a truly magnificent work of art. We may consider ourselves lucky that we may still admire it today.

Sources: Capitool travel guide Italy (2014), p. 203, Trotter travel guide Northwest Italy (2016), p. 400, Basilica di San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro – Wikipedia and LombardiaBeniCulturali.

Notes

[1] Augustine in English, but in this post I will mostly use the Latin version of his name.

[2] Canto 10, verse 128.

[3] It should be noted that the relics of Augustinus were missing at the time. It was not until 1695 that these were rediscovered in the crypt.