Bibracte (Mont-Beuvray)

Ancient Bibracte was an important fortified settlement (oppidum) of the Gallic tribe of the Aedui. According to the Roman general Gaius Julius Caesar it was their largest and most prosperous city.[1] This city was situated on a mountain called Mont-Beuvray, which reaches a height of over eight hundred metres. People exploring the mountain nowadays will immediately understand why the Aedui chose this location. The great height offered excellent protection against enemy attacks, while enemy armies could be spotted from dozens of miles away. And yet the story of Bibracte is a brief one: the city existed for roughly one century. The site is now an archaeological park, with an interesting museum, panoramic views and tours in four languages, including Dutch!

The battle of Bibracte

The name Bibracte is closely linked with the battle of Bibracte, which was fought in June of the year 58 BCE between the Romans on the one hand and the Helvetii, a coalition of Celtic tribes, on the other. The Romans were led by the aforementioned Gaius Julius Caesar. He had been consul in 59 BCE and had been granted a special five-year command for the provinces of Illyricum and Gallia Cisalpina (modern Northern Italy) by the Lex Vatinia. Upon the death of its governor Metellus Celer, the province of Gallia Transalpina had been added to this command, an area which more or less corresponds with the modern Provence in France. It was an important addition, as it was in Gallia Transalpina that important events were about to take place.

In the vicinity of Lake Geneva, the Celtic tribe of the Helvetii and several other tribes had started a large, well-prepared migration. At least several tens of thousands of people were involved in the operation, although there is every reason to doubt the number of 368,000 given by Caesar.[2] The Celts wanted to march through Gallia Transalpina, but Caesar refused them entry and started organising the defences of the province by levying local troops and building fortifications. Some Helvetii then tried to cross the river Rhône anyway, but they were easily repulsed. The Helvetii thereupon decided to take a different route and march through the Jura and the territories of the Sequani. The Sequani gave permission, but presumably because of food shortages the Helvetii also looted a number of farms in territories that belonged to the Aedui. And the Aedui had been Roman allies for several decades, possibly since the 120s BCE.

Caesar greatly exaggerated the attacks on the farms and used them as a pretext for a military intervention. The Roman general had never been given an assignment or mandate for the conquest of Gaul, while the Lex de provinciis praetoriis stipulated that magistrates were prohibited from operating outside their provinces without ample justification. However, this law still allowed expeditions rei publicae causa (in the interest of the state), and Caesar’s Gallic War is the perfect example of how generously the term rei publicae causa was often interpreted. When the Helvetii were marching on his province, Caesar had four legions at his disposal. However, three of these were stationed at Aquileia and just one was already in Gallia Transalpina. This explains why Caesar was initially dependent on local auxiliaries. But as soon as the Helvetii had taken an alternative route, he quickly sent for the three legions from Aquileia. Moreover, without obtaining permission from the Senate he levied two new legions in Gallia Cisalpina. It is quite certain that men who did not possess Roman citizenship also enlisted in these legions, which was strictly speaking illegal.

With his six legions and Celtic auxiliaries Caesar began pursuing the Helvetii, all the while claiming that he was merely offering protection to his allies the Aedui. At the river Arar (now the Saône) he bumped into the Helvetian rearguard. A large part of the Celtic host had already crossed the river, but the tribe of the Tigurini was still waiting for its turn. The Tigurini were no match for the Romans and were slaughtered almost to a man. For Caesar there was a personal touch to all this bloodshed.

In 107 BCE the Tigurini had defeated a Roman army, killing one Lucius Calpurnius Piso.[3] This Piso was the grandfather of Caesar’s own father-in-law. And although Caesar himself had not even been born yet in 107 BCE, he could still claim to have avenged his in-laws with his victory over the Tigurini. The Roman continued his pursuit, but his much more numerous cavalry was ambushed by the Helvetii and was forced to withdraw. In June of 58 BCE Caesar was 18 Roman miles (ca. 26.5 kilometres) from Bibracte. As his army’s supply situation was unsatisfactory and he urgently needed additional grain, he decided to stop chasing the Helvetii and march towards this large and prosperous city. Now the tables were turned, and it was the Celts who began pursuing Caesar and harassing his rearguard. The battle of Bibracte was about to commence.

Although the name “battle of Bibracte” is commonly used, the clash between the Romans and Celts actually took place south of the city. The battlefield can be located northwest of Toulon-sur-Arroux. Here traces of the Roman camp and the Celtic wagon fort have been found, as well as ditches where the cremated remains of the Roman dead were buried.[4] Caesar deployed his army on a hill and awaited the Celtic attack there. The four experienced legions were to do the actual fighting, while the two newly raised legions and the auxiliaries were ordered to protect the baggage train. The Helvetii began climbing the hill in a tight formation and were greeted with a hail of Roman missiles. The Roman pilum (javelin) proved to be very effective and completely decimated the Celts in the front ranks. The legionaries then drew their swords and began pushing the Helvetii from the hill. When the fighting had reached the plains, the Romans had the upper hand as well, but that soon changed when the Helvetii in their turn occupied a hill. Now it was the Romans who had to fight uphill. To make matters worse, their vulnerable right flank was threatened by troops from the Boii and Tulingi, who were also part of the Helvetian coalition, but had not been engaged yet.

At this critical moment the flexibility of the Roman legions proved to be decisive. Caesar ordered the first two lines to continue the fight against the Helvetii, while the third and final line of the acies triplex turned around and drove back the Boii and Tulingi. Fighting continued until after sunset. Slowly but surely the Romans gained the upper hand. The Helvetii were forced further uphill, while the Boii and Tulingi retreated to the Celtic wagon fort. Plutarch claims that at the wagon fort the women and children of the Helvetii threw themselves into the fray as well.[5] In the end the Romans managed to capture the enemy camp and the battle of Bibracte ended in a resounding Roman victory. However, Roman casualties had been significant. Caesar reports that he needed three days to treat the wounded and bury the dead.[6] On the fourth day, the Romans resumed their pursuit. The Helvetii, who must have themselves lost tens of thousands of men, were now in the territory of the Lingones, a tribe whose principal settlement was Andematunnum (Langres). A Helvetian delegation soon reported to Caesar to offer their surrender. Most Helvetii were subsequently forced to return to their homeland.

Bibracte again

The migration of the Helvetii had ended in failure, while Caesar’s Gallic war had only just begun. Still in 58 BCE he defeated the Germanic king Ariovistus of the Suebi, while the next year he campaigned against the Belgae, who were defeated at the river Sambre. In 56 BCE Caesar’s ships defeated the fleet of the Veneti, a seafaring people in the south of Brittany. His legates campaigned in Normandy and Aquitania, while Caesar himself fought the Menapii and Morini near the Pas de Calais. In 55 BCE the Roman general built a bridge across the Rhine and entered Germanic territory, a campaign that was followed by the first expedition on the other side of the English Channel, to Britain. The British expedition yielded very little booty, but it was a huge propaganda success. The next year Caesar made the crossing again, but his new campaign was overshadowed by a revolt by Ambiorix and his Eburones, who among other things managed to annihilate an entire Roman legion. Caesar spent most of 53 BCE on punitive expeditions against various tribes, but he did not succeed in capturing Ambiorix.

Just when Gaul seemed to have been pacified again, the Great Gallic revolt broke out in 52 BCE. The cause of this revolt can be summarised fairly easily: slowly but surely the Gallic tribes had begun to realise that the Romans and their legions were there to stay. What had initially been presented as a series of campaigns in the best interest of Roman allies had in fact degenerated into a permanent Roman occupation. In other words, the ally had become a conqueror. The Gallic revolt started with the tribe of the Carnutes in Cenabum (Orléans), but of much greater importance was the election of a certain Vercingetorix, son of Celtillus, as king of the Arverni. Some seventy years previously, the Arverni had fought a brief war against the Romans, but after that relations between the two peoples seem to have been good, and the territories of the Arverni had not in any way been affected by Caesar’s campaigns. The fact that the Arverni and many of their neighbours had joined the Gallic revolt was very bad news for the great conqueror. However, Caesar responded as he usually did, lightning-fast and decisively. He captured Cenabum and then took Avaricum (Bourges) too after a famous siege.

Caesar’s luck then changed when he suffered a defeat against the Arverni at Gergovia. It was a minor defeat, but the consequences were huge, as it led to the defection of the Aedui. Their loyalty had already been put to the test in the preceding years, in part because of Caesar’s involvement in the death of the anti-Roman leader Dumnorix. After the Aedui had joined the revolt, they contacted Vercingetorix and even proposed to assume supreme command of the war themselves. In order to discuss this matter, a large number of Gallic leaders met at a council that was held in Bibracte. This is the second time that Caesar mentions the city in his report.[7] The council of Bibracte confirmed Vercingetorix as commander-in-chief, but Vercingetorix was subsequently defeated by Caesar at Alesia (Alise-Sainte-Reine). After his surrender most of the other tribes that had participated in the revolt capitulated as well. As they were by far the most important tribes, the Aedui and Arverni were treated leniently, for the simple reason that Caesar still needed them. The Roman general then mentions Bibracte one more time in his report, i.e. as the site where he made his winter camp in late 52 BCE.[8]

Oppidum of the Aedui

At the end of the second century BCE Bibracte was founded by the Aedui as an oppidum (fortified settlement). Initially the city covered a surface of 200 hectares and was surrounded by walls that were seven kilometres long. These walls are older than a second, shorter set of walls with a total length of 5.2 kilometres that were later built within the original walls and that enclosed a surface of 135 hectares. It therefore appears that Bibracte shrunk in size. The city had between 5,000 and 10,000 inhabitants. Archaeological finds prove that Bibracte was a city of craftsmen and merchants. Many buildings have been found that were used for metalworking, and excavated coins show that people came from far away to trade in the city. However, between roughly 20 BCE and 10 CE Bibracte was abandoned. Its citizens left for a new city, founded by the Romans: Augustodunum (Autun). Because of the Pax Romana, it was no longer necessary to live in fortified settlements. The Romans simultaneously strongly encouraged the Gallic migrations by founding new settlements.

After the inhabitants of Bibracte had left, only the sacred places continued to be used for a long time. At some point ancient Bibracte was completely forgotten. When the French became interested again in the history of Gaul, they also began to wonder where this legendary city was situated. It was usually assumed that Autun was simply Romanised Bibracte. It was a wine trader named Jacques-Gabriel Bulliot (1817-1902) who rejected this assumption. He was the first to identify Mont-Beuvray as the site where ancient Bibracte once stood. In the end Bulliot received financial support from the emperor Napoleon III to start excavations on the mountain. These were carried out between 1867 and 1895, after which Bulliot transferred the baton to his cousin Joseph Déchelette (1862-1914). Unfortunately Déchelette was killed in World War One[9], and his death put a temporary end to the excavation of Bibracte. It was not until 1984 that the excavations were resumed and they continue until this day. During the summer, students from various universities work up a sweat to make new discoveries.

Exploring Bibracte

We explored the archaeological park with our expert guide Josje, who did her utmost to make the guided tour interesting for children as well. Josje told us, among other things, that only about five percent of the ancient city has been excavated. Visitors should therefore certainly not expect some kind of Gallic Forum Romanum or major works of art. The traces of ancient Bibracte are mostly foundations of buildings. We asked our guide what the name Bibracte actually means. Josje referred to the Greek word Βι-φρακτος, which means “fortified twice”. This etymology matches well with the two sets of walls that surrounded Bibracte. However, why would a Gallic city have a Greek name? Perhaps another etymology is more convincing. Bibracte could also mean something along the lines of “beaver city” or “brown city”. At the moment it is not yet possible to give a definitive explanation of the name.

Our guided tour started at a height of 814 metres, seven metres below the summit of Mont-Beuvray (photo above). Here the visitor can enjoy a panoramic view towards the south, so towards the site where the battle of Bibracte was fought. On this spot a monument was erected for Jacques-Gabriel Bulliot, which contains the three quotes from Caesar’s De Bello Gallico in which Bibracte is mentioned (photo above). Just a stone’s throw away we find a cross and a small chapel for Saint Martin (photo above), built in 1873 on the spot once occupied by a Gallo-Roman temple. From the chapel we walked to a reconstructed Gallic well, which is currently known as the Fontaine Saint-Pierre (photo above). Special powers are attributed to the water from the well. This was already the case in Antiquity, and people continued to believe in these powers in the centuries that followed. In fact, even in the nineteenth century wetnurses still came to this spot to dip their breasts in the water, an act said to stimulate the production of milk. The well we see today is a replica of the well as it must have looked like in the first century BCE.

The guide then took us to the remains of an enormous Roman house (domus) that must have measured about 3,600 square metres (photo above). Ironically this house was built just before the aforementioned migration to Augustodunum began. The inhabitants therefore probably did not get to enjoy their abode for long, although the house certainly contained enough luxury elements to make their lives comfortable. The domus for instance had a mosaic floor, of which remains can be found in the museum of Bibracte (photo below). It also had the typical Roman system of underfloor heating known as hypocaustum. Near the Roman villa we also find a reconstruction of the house that Bulliot had built during his excavations (photo above). It is currently known as L’Hôtel des Gaules.

The next attraction of our tour was the site of the Roman forum of Bibracte. Here, among other things, the remains of a basilica and of shops have been found (photo below). At the start of the fifteenth century a small group of Franciscans settled at this location and built their convent. Three centuries later they left again. The Franciscans will certainly have appreciated the incredible view, but life on the Mont-Beuvray must have been tough and lonely as well. Along the road we also find a reconstructed stone basin. Its exact purpose is unknown, but on Google Maps it is called the Druid Pink Granite Basin. It is certainly conceivable that it had a ritual function in Bibracte.

Our tour ended at the Porte du Rebout, where parts of the walls of Bibracte have been replicated. Here we see the famous Murus Gallicus, mentioned by Caesar in his report, a type of wall made of stone and wooden beams. The museum of Bibracte offers visitors a more detailed explanation of the construction technique. In this museum we find a large collection of Gallic objects, of which I especially liked the impressive collection of coins. Some objects are replicas, such as the head of a Celt from Mšecké Žehrovice in the Czech Republic. The Celt has braided hair, the back of his head seems to be shaved, and he has a rather distinctive moustache. The original dates from the third or second century BCE and was found in 1943. The museum obviously also has a section dedicated to Celtic war gear, for instance swords and helmets. The differences between Celtic and Roman arms and armour were not that big, which of course presents archaeologists with a challenge.

More information can be found on the official website of Bibracte.

Notes

[1] De Bello Gallico, Book I.23.

[2] De Bello Gallico, Book I.29.

[3] De Bello Gallico, Book 1.12.

[4] Kurt A. Raaflaub, The Landmark Julius Caesar, p. 20.

[5] Plutarch, Life of Caesar 18.

[6] De Bello Gallico, Book 1.26.

[7] De Bello Gallico, Book VII.63.

[8] De Bello Gallico, Book VII.90.

[9] He was already 52 years old at the time, but had volunteered for the front.