Head of Jupiter, first century.
The archaeological museum of Milan is located directly next to the church of San Maurizio. Visitors enter in one of the cloisters, which is decorated with capitals and sarcophagi. They then go into a building dedicated to the history of Roman Milan. This is by far the most interesting section of the Museo Archeologico, with the most beautiful and intriguing objects. I initially thought this was the only room in the museum, but I quickly learned that there was more waiting for me outside. In the inner garden we find the sole surviving Roman tower and part of the Roman city walls of Milan, built at the end of the third century. Inside the tower we may admire medieval frescoes and behind it there is a modern building with three more floors of the museum. The rooms here are consecutively dedicated to the Longobards, Etruscans and Greeks.
Milan in Antiquity
The Romans knew Milan as Mediolanum (sometimes Mediolanium). The word means something along the lines of “place in the middle”. Mediolanum had been founded at some point in the fifth century BCE as a Celtic settlement, in the vicinity of the older Etruscan settlement of Melpum. The Celts who were responsible for the founding were representatives of the so-called Golasecca culture. In the early fourth century new Celtic tribes invaded Northern Italy and settled in the fertile Po valley. Among them were the Insubres, Boii, Lingones, Cenomani and Senones. The latter would advance south furthest and in 386 BCE even succeeded in sacking Rome. By contrast, the Insubres lingered in the north and took control of Mediolanum, which quickly became their principal settlement. The Insubres too were frequently at war with the Romans. In 223 BCE they suffered an ignominious defeat against the consuls Gaius Flaminius and Publius Furius Philus. The next year the consul Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus captured Mediolanum, after which the two peoples made peace.
Roman room in the Museo Archeologico.
The capture of Mediolanum did not mean that the Romans from that point on controlled the city. On the contrary, there is no evidence that they left a garrison, which makes it likely that in practice the Insubres remained independent. To tighten their grip on the Po valley, the Romans in 218 BCE founded two Latin colonies southeast of Mediolanum, the cities of Placentia (Piacenza) and Cremona. From the start these colonies found themselves under attack, especially from the Insubres and their allies the Boii (the Cenomani sided with Rome most of the time). In 194 BCE the proconsul Lucius Valerius Flaccus fought against a combined army of Insubres and Boii, and managed to defeat it in the vicinity of Mediolanum. After this battle the Insubres seem to have surrendered. Roman influence on both sides of the Po then gradually increased, a process that was aided by the construction of roads such as the Via Aemilia and the founding of new colonies along that road, such as Bononia (Bologna), Mutina (Modena) and Parma. At an unspecified moment in the second century BCE Mediolanum and Placentia were connected by the Via Mediolanum-Placentia. The construction of this road will not just have significantly speeded up travel, but also the process of Romanisation.
Mosaic floor from a Roman building (aula), first century BCE or CE.
The Romans initially did not consider Northern Italy as part of Italy. For them it was part of Gaul, and they called it Gallia Cisalpina, Gaul on this side of the Alps. The area north of the river Po was known as Gallia Transpadana. In 89 BCE the Lex Pompeia granted the inhabitants of Gallia Transpadana, including the citizens of Mediolanum, Latin status. Mediolanum now became a Latin colonia, with its magistrates even acquiring full Roman citizenship. The next step, in 49 BCE, was the Lex Roscia.[1] This law granted full Roman citizenship to the inhabitants of cities such as Mediolanum, Verona and Brescia. These cities now acquired the status of a municipium. Mediolanum was provided with city walls, a Roman forum (located on the spot where we now find the church of San Sepolcro), theatre and amphitheatre. During the first three centuries of the Imperial Age, Milan did not play a significant role. The museum therefore describes Roman Milan as a quiet provincial town. Then everything changed in the year 286, when a Roman emperor turned Mediolanum into his residence.
Milan as an imperial residence
Fresco of a bird, first century.
So, what had happened exactly? In 285 a certain Diocletianus had defeated the legitimate emperor Carinus and had taken over the immense Roman Empire. Diocletianus deemed it best not to rule alone. He appointed his comrade from the army Maximianus as caesar (subordinate emperor) and on 1 April 286 even promoted him to augustus (full emperor). The Roman Empire now had two emperors, but the two were not equals. Diocletianus took the title of Jovius as a demonstration of his devotion to Jupiter, the supreme god of the Romans. Maximianus in his turn became Herculius. The latter title was not just an indication of the emperor’s devotion to Hercules, but also proof of his subservience to Diocletianus. After all, in the Roman Pantheon, Jupiter clearly ranked above Hercules, who was his son by a mortal woman. Maximianus would never forget to whom he owed his imperial throne.
While Diocletianus settled in the Roman East and chose Nicomedia as his residence, Maximianus ruled over the western part of the Empire. He initially had two “capitals”, i.e. Augusta Treverorum (Trier) and Mediolanum. In 293 Diocletianus then created the system known as the Tetrarchy. The Tetrarchy led to the Roman Empire being split informally into four parts. Each part was governed by either a senior emperor (an augustus) or a junior emperor (a caesar). When an augustus died or abdicated, he was normally succeeded by a caesar. The latter then nominated a new caesar. Flavius Valerius Constantius, father of Constantine the Great, was appointed caesar under Maximianus. As Constantius governed Gaul and Britain, Trier became his capital. For Maximianus, who ruled over Italy, North Africa and Spain, Milan was now his sole imperial residence. In the Via Brisa, just around the corner from the archaeological museum, we may still see the remains of his palace. The emperor moreover gave Mediolanum a circus – the square tower behind the aforementioned church of San Maurizio is all that remains of it – and a large complex of public baths. These baths are known as the Herculean Baths, after Maximianus Herculius. Lastly, the emperor strengthened the city walls and had new walls built around the expansions of the city.
Mosaic floor from the Herculean Baths of Milan.
In 402 the emperor Honorius (395-423) decided to move the imperial residence to Ravenna. This put an end to the status of Mediolanum as one of the capitals of the Roman Empire. Christianity had by now become the state religion, and in Mediolanum the formidable bishop Ambrosius was active until his death in 397 (he had, by the way, been born around the year 340 in Trier). Ambrosius greatly promoted Orthodox Christianity and fiercely defended it against the heretical Arians, who did not believe that God the Father and Christ his Son were made of the same substance (consubstantiality). Of greater interest to our story is the fact that the founding of many churches is attributed to this bishop. Of these the most important three, built outside the walls of Mediolanum, are Sant’Ambrogio, San Nazaro in Brolo and San Simpliciano, which are all still there. Moreover, under the protection of the emperor – presumably Honorius or his father Theodosius (379-395) – the church of San Lorenzo Maggiore was built, not far from the amphitheatre of the city. And so Milan acquired its religious monuments that can still be visited today.
Mediolanum, seen from the west.
Collection
Diatreta Trivulzio.
A beautiful scale model in the museum allows us to better understand the geography of Roman Milan. For me the model also offered better insight into the history of the famous Duomo of the city. The construction of this cathedral of Santa Maria Nascente only started in 1386, but before that Milan had two cathedrals from late Antiquity. These were the winter cathedral of Santa Maria Maggiore and the summer cathedral of Santa Thecla. Between the two buildings there was an octagonal baptistery. The current cathedral arose on the footprint of the Santa Maria Maggiore, while of the two other buildings nothing was left above ground. However, if you buy a ticket for the archaeological area below the Duomo, you can still see the contours of the baptismal font and the remains of the apse of the Santa Thecla.
In the Roman collection we find beautiful mosaic floors, murals and sculpted heads of emperors and deities. The two most extraordinary objects both date from late Antiquity. The first is a glass drinking cup from the fourth century, also known as the Diatreta Trivulzio. The cup was discovered in 1675 in a sarcophagus which also contained other burial gifts. In 1777 the object was purchased by Carlo Trivulzio, an abbot and art collector, who took the cup with him to Milan. Glass items from Antiquity are very rare indeed. This one moreover has a text in Latin:
BIBE VIVAS MVLTIS ANNIS
(“Drink so you may live many years”)
Also from the fourth century is the so-called Patera of Parabiagio. This silver dish, which was found in 1907, features the triumph of the mother goddess Cybele with her consort Attis. They are riding a lion-drawn cart, which is accompanied by armed dancers or Corybantes. To the right of the cart we see Aion, god of eternity, inside some kind of hoop with the signs of the zodiac. It is a scene familiar to us from a mosaic that was found in Sassoferrato. The hoop is held by Atlas, and to the right of it we see the snake of Asklepios, god of healing. Also depicted are Tellus or Terra, goddess of the soil, and her four children, the four seasons. Other recognisable figures are Okeanos and Thetis, nymphs, and Sun and Moon. The dish is dated to the second half of the fourth century. At the time Christianity was on the rise, but an elite that still supported the ancient cults launched a religious counter-offensive. This was especially the case during the reign of the emperor Julianus the Apostate (361-363), so it is certainly possible that the Patera of Parabiagio was made during his reign.
Patera di Parabiagio.
It is now time to go outside. From the inner garden the visitor has an unobstructed view of the piece of Roman city wall with the lone surviving tower. During the late Longobardic or early Carolingian era the tower was incorporated into the convent of the church of San Maurizio. At some point it was turned into a chapel, which explains the presence of Christian frescoes on the walls. These date from the end of the thirteenth or beginning of the fourteenth century. They are not in mint condition, but can nevertheless be interpreted quite well. Apart from a Crucifixion we see Saint Franciscus of Assisi receiving the stigmata and several saints.
Tower and city wall of Mediolanum.
Frescoes in the tower.
A walkway then gives access to the modern part of the archaeological museum, which consists of three large rooms on three floors. The first room is dedicated to the Longobards (568-774), who specialised in fibulae. The museum has a number of beautiful fibulae on display.
The second room is all about the Etruscan civilisation. The sarcophagus of an Etruscan woman, Velka, immediately catches the eye. The object comes from Tarquinia and dates from the second or first century BCE. Velka herself is depicted as a young woman reclining for supper. Also linked to the afterlife is the relief of a cinerary urn which features a scene from Greek mythology. We see how the Trojan hero Paris is molested by his brothers, who believe he is a simple shepherd who has bested them at the games. And that brings us to the last room, dedicated to classical Greece. Here the collection is mostly composed of ceramics and statuettes. From Sicily comes a statuette of an enthroned goddess, perhaps Demeter (sixth or fifth century BCE). The pigeon in her lap is younger and dates from the third century BCE. The combination of the goddess and pigeon is therefore not original, but the two items match quite well.
Note
[1] The museum mentions a Lex Julia, but probably refers to the same law. The Lex Roscia had been tabled by the people’s tribune Lucius Roscius Fabatus, a supporter of Gaius Julius Caesar.